What happens when children learn in a second language?
Children can struggle when the language of instruction isn’t their first language
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Teaching and learning happen through language. But according to UNESCO, four in every ten students globally are taught in languages with which they are not adequately familiar. This mismatch between learners’ home languages and the language of instruction undermines their comprehension, engagement, and learning outcomes, particularly in the early years of schooling.
In Ghana and many other sub-Saharan African countries, language is not only an educational issue but also a matter of equity and inclusion. Children who struggle to understand the language used in school are more likely to disengage from learning and may eventually drop out. Addressing this barrier to education will reduce dropout rates, improve learning outcomes, and give more children equitable opportunities to succeed in school.
Language of educational instruction
My own educational experience was shaped by growing up and attending school in a rural community with high dropout rates. As a learner, I became increasingly curious about why many of my peers were disengaging from school. What might have motivated them to persist rather than withdraw? Over time, my curiosity evolved into an academic interest in educational and cognitive psychology. I wanted to understand how learning processes, motivation, and classroom practices influence children’s engagement and achievement. A pattern emerged in my research: I found that disengagement from school was not random, but clustered disproportionately among children learning in a language that differed from the language they spoke at home.
“Children who struggle to understand the language used in school are more likely to disengage from learning and may eventually drop out.”
In Ghana, the mother-tongue instruction mandate states that education from kindergarten to primary three should be in local languages. This is a bold commitment to education grounded in local languages and cultural identity. But what happens in the complexities of our classrooms? How do teachers navigate the mandate? What do parents think? Where do communities stand? And most critically, are our learners genuinely benefiting from this mandate?
To answer these questions, I examined bilingual children’s language and memory in the lab. I also looked at the classroom reality. I observed teachers in action, listened to parents’ perspectives, and documented what actually happens when policy meets practice. I found tensions that suggest the policy may not be achieving all of its goals.
Learning in local versus official languages
I have come to appreciate that the issue of language of education is far more complex than just a choice between English and local languages. One of my most striking findings was the tension between what supports learning in the classroom and the aspirations of many learners and parents for the future. When local languages were used for instruction, particularly in rural communities, I saw that learners participated more actively, asked more questions, and demonstrated stronger understanding. Yet many of these same learners expressed a preference for education in English because they associated English with opportunities for employment, travel, and future success.
While parents and community members wanted their children to understand what was being taught in school, many also worried that local-language instruction might disadvantage them in the future. Rural dwellers even viewed the language policy as a way of perpetuating inequalities in rural communities, believing that children in rural areas were being denied access to the language that is associated with economic and social mobility.
These perspectives challenged me to think beyond learning outcomes and to consider the broader social and economic meanings that communities attach to language and education. My research also revealed a significant gap between policy and practice. Although the policy simply advocates the use of local languages in the early years, classroom realities are often much more complicated. Teachers frequently lack appropriate training and instructional materials, assessments are largely in English, and many classrooms operate in multilingual environments that do not fit neatly within policy assumptions. All of this reinforced my conviction that effective language policies must be grounded in the realities of schools and communities, not only in theoretical recommendations.
I have shared my findings with policymakers, education leaders, teachers, and practitioners across Ghana. Policymakers have reached out to discuss how what I have learned might inform future policy and practice. Meaningful educational change happens when researchers, teachers, communities, and policymakers work together.
“Meaningful educational change happens when researchers, teachers, communities, and policymakers work together.”
A blended approach to learning
Neither English-only nor local-language-only instruction fully addresses the needs of learners in multilingual contexts. I have spoken with teachers, education officials, parents, and pupils, and they most strongly support a blended approach that allows children to learn through familiar languages while simultaneously developing proficiency in English. I now plan to investigate how this translanguaging approach can be structured and implemented across different educational contexts. While many teachers are already adept at moving between languages, we need evidence-based guidance on how to do this in ways that maximise learning outcomes. Ultimately, my goal is to help develop language-of-education policies that are both scientifically informed and practically achievable. I hope for a future in which every child, regardless of the language they speak at home, has the opportunity to thrive in school.
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